Ancient+Egyptian+Gender+Roles+-+wikiproject

Introduction
In ancient times the daily roles of Egyptians were based on class and gender. They recognized only two genders although there were deities that displayed characteristics of both sexes. The roles fulfilled by men and women varied greatly in daily life yet both sexes enjoyed fairly equal legal and economic rights. In fact, in my opinion women had a great deal of power in ancient Egypt. It was the woman, the wife, who was in charge of most of the home, domestic activities, and the children. Additionally, the “husband assumed the father's former role of protecting and caring for his bride, although he in no way became her legal guardian. The wife retained her independence, and was able to continue administering her own assets.”(Tyldesley NP) Also, it seems to me that the primary goal for a woman was to have and raise children as well as manage the home. Female children would follow in the footsteps of her mother by helping her mother with household chores so that she too would in turn be a fine mother and be able to manage her own household one day. Also, Egyptians believed in respecting and honoring both parents since they were regarded as the source of life for their children. Mothers were supposed to be particularly close with their children and were valued during life, taken care of in old age and honored in death. Altogether I feel that women were well respected in ancient Egypt and had power and influence of their own as well as independence.

Legal, Social, and Economic Rights of Women
Compared to other ancient civilizations that existed during the same time Egyptian women had a great deal of legal, economic, and personal freedom. In fact Egyptian women were very fortunate considering that “Egyptian society gave remarkable freedoms and legal rights to women -- far more than in the rest of the Near East or in the classical world.”(Ray NP) It’s reflected in the archaeological record that ancient Egyptian women were able to fill roles in society from farmer to scribe all the way to administrators or even pharaoh; ruler of all Egypt. (To learn more about Social Roles and Stratification) Female rulers such as Hatshepsut and Cleopatra VII are still remembered today for their greatness and cunning. Ancient texts also provide anthropologists with a clear picture of the legal rights of women in ancient Egypt. Legal rights for ancient Egyptian women “extended to all legally defined areas of Egyptian civilization. Women could manage, own, and sell private property, which included slaves, land, portable goods, servants, livestock, and money.”(Tyldesley NP) Women were also extended the rights to resolve legal agreements as well as the right to be a contracting partner in a divorce or marriage contract. The list of legal rights for ancient Egyptian women almost seems never-ending from the ability to free slaves or adopt a child they practically could do anything a man could legally.

So what couldn’t an Egyptian women legally do? What I’ve come across as probably one of the worst offences you could commit as a woman in ancient Egyptian society is adultery. Ancient texts “clearly indicate that the act was regarded as a moral failing and a source of community discord.”(Galpaz-Feller NP) If a woman was married and had sex with a man other than her husband she could certainly be put to death according to ancient Egyptian law. This is even referenced in the old Egyptian story[| A Tale of Two Brothers], in which an adulterous wife betrayed her husband, was killed and fed to the dogs. However, this story also highlights the importance of women in pharaonic succession as well. But I feel a bit of a double standard existed for the punishment of men who committed adultery; they would likely only get a divorce. Yet, men may have been put to death if they were caught involved with the wife of someone much higher ranking in society than themselves. Although adultery did occur and is referenced in ancient texts it could, in my opinion, be avoided since the Egyptians had fairly open-minded beliefs regarding sex and sexuality. I was fascinated to find out that sex between unmarried people was regarded as perfectly normal and that they were free to enjoy their love life with whatever partners they wanted before settling down to marriage. I think this was their societies way of blowing off steam or maybe a liminal phase as a rite of passage before marriage. It makes perfect sense that men and women would be expected to explore their sexuality before marriage. This mind-set also exemplifies just how much freedom women had in this society. Additionally, if a woman became pregnant while unwed there was no stigma attached to her as seen in many ancient and modern cultures. Instead she was viewed as a good candidate for marriage since she was clearly fertile and would make a great wife. However, from an ancient Egyptian viewpoint whether a woman was married or not her primary goal in life was to be fertile and produce children. If a woman became pregnant her status in society would be slightly elevated just to demonstrate how important fertility and children were to the Egyptians. (If you want to read more about gender roles and daily life for women in ancient Egypt)

Comparison of Women in Ancient Egypt and Other Ancient Cultures
Although women in ancient Egypt may not have had the same exact legal and economic rights as Egyptian men they surely had more power than many of their contemporaries in other civilizations. For example, while I found that the ancient Egyptians viewed men and women as fairly equal just fulfilling different roles in society it seems as though ancient mainland Greeks found women to be inferior to men. For example, women would never hold a position of power in government as many ancient Egyptian women such as Hatshepsut have. Women in Egypt had very similar legal rights to men such as the right to own property whereas Greek women were legally unable to own land due to gender biased property laws. One exception I found to this was in Sparta where women were sometimes landowners due to the structure of their militant society and the constant death of adult males in the society. This holds many similarities to the countless Egyptian women that were fortunate enough to be able to legally own land. Additionally Minoan women were fortunate enough to have similar freedoms to the Egyptians and Spartans. From the artwork left behind women were depicted as different from men in dress and physical form but not in an inferior manner. However, since we are unable to understand their written language we still don‘t know exactly what legal rights Minoan women had. (To read more about Minoan Women)

Another comparison worth mentioning is that of Egyptian women to Roman women. Although Roman women from wealthy and powerful families could hold influence through social relationships they sadly had no direct political power. This is definitely a stark contrast to the influence of ancient Egyptian society where women could hold powerful positions such as pharaoh. Also, queens were revered and well known in ancient Egyptian society; not to mention politically active. There are many instances of queens co-ruling with their husbands or ruling on their own with little to no criticism. Women in Egypt were truly important to their society which is apparent just by the numerous depictions of women in art as well as the numerous women that were politically powerful. Not to mention the significance of Egyptian women in the home which was already previously discussed. They formed the foundation for their families by raising the children and taking care of the domestic sphere. These important domestic duties were also performed by their Greek, Roman, and Minoan counterparts. However, from what I've read Egyptian women were much more politically active and influential, held greater legal and economic rights, and could even rule.

One Powerful Woman in Ancient Egyptian History
One of the most notable and impressive female figures in history would have to be the first female Pharaoh, Hatshepsut. Possibly the most astonishing fact about her reign was that an “Egyptian queen during the time of the Pharaohs couldn't rule as monarch. Hatshepsut, the only known exception to this, was labeled a king.”(Hill NP) However, in order for Hatshepsut to be considered a king by the public she needed to appear a bit more masculine as well as assert her legitimacy as heir to the throne. She faced a few gender based problems that forced her to come up with cleaver solutions to silence those who believed that only a man could be the divine king. In order to pass as a king she often was seen in public wearing a false beard and made sure she was depicted by scribes as very masculine in hieroglyphs “with the striped nemes headdress and uraeus cobra, symbols of a king.”(Brown NP) She was also known to construct many monuments and temple structures which not only showcased her greatness and authority but also displayed her masculine iconography. By building large obelisks, the Red Chapel, and numerous temples Hatshepsut was “emphasizing her royal and divine origins, [she] endeavored to legitimize her claim to the thrown.”(Schulz & Seidel 158) While she ruled Hatshepsut commisioned many structures to be built. (To read more about Construction, Technology, and Architecture) I feel that this was likely either to gain favor of the people, showcase her ligitimacy to the throne, or maybe even be more spiritual by pleasing the gods. It has also been suggested that her move towards more religious fundamentalism was not just for spiritual reasons but to balance out and counteract the fact that no matter how masculine she was depicted she was still a female ruling as a king.



While asserting her masculinity was indeed important to gaining acceptance as ‘king’ her most important proclamation about her identity referred to her royal bloodline. She continually brought to attention the fact that she was “the king’s firstborn daughter” and “only [she] not her stepson, had a biological link to divine royalty”(Brown NP) Unfortunately for her stepson, Thutmosis III, was the son of one of his fathers’ minor wives whereas Hatshepsut was a direct blood relative to Thutmosis I. Even though Thutmosis III was supposed to be pharaoh his step mother took over as regent and then claimed the title of king. However, “as the daughter of Thutmosis I and the wife of Thutmosis II, she continued the cult of Amun-Re and thus ensured the preservation of the Dynasty.”(Schulz & Seidel 158) Due to this mixture of royal blood and a masculine image Hatshepsut was able to retain control as the king of Egypt for twenty-two years. For those years she would have to walk a fine line between her femininity and her masculinity as well as account for the duality of a pharaoh being "a combination of a human element and a divine counterpart."(Ray NP) Possibly this mix of traits would have caused Hatshepsut internal confusion but it seems to me that she functioned quite well as king with her incredibly complex identity. She took on a very unique role as well as gender identity but will be known for all time as being the woman who was courageous enough to rule Egypt without the aid of a husband. However, just the fact that Hatshepsut was king until her death clearly had a great deal to do with the nature of ancient Egyptian society and the equality given women. At first her reign as a king may have bothered some fundamental men in Egyptian society but it appears as though she ruled without any difficulty. In fact, Hatshepsuts' reign is characterized by a time of trade and economic expansion and prosperity. Clearly having a female 'king' benefited Egyptian society and was not seen as unusual. In the end it was her royal blood that mattered to her people, not her gender.

This is extra stuff for anyone who would like to know a little more about 'King' Hatshepsut :) [|National Geographic Video about Hatshepsut (2:39min)]

[|3D Google Model of Hatshepsut's Temple]

Conclusion
In my opinion ancient Egypt from its’ origins was a place that both men and women could be happy to call home. It was a revolutionary place by today’s standards considering the respect as well as legal and economic freedom women were granted. Overall ancient Egypt was a reasonably equal place to live for both sexes and women had plenty of independence. Although men were much more likely to be literate or hold a position of power it was far from unheard of for women to work their way to powerful standing in society. There were countless influential and powerful women that impacted Egyptian society and history. Women ruled the children, the home and were respected and loved by their families and husbands. Throughout ancient Egyptian history women were valued and important; never viewed as lesser beings than men.